Geophysics

Geophysics () is a physical science concerned with the processes and properties of Earth and its surrounding space environment, studied using quantitative and observational methods. It focuses primarily on Earth’s shape and its gravitational, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields. It also studies internal structure, composition, and dynamics, and their surface expression in tectonics, volcanism, and rock formation. Geophysics also encompasses a broader Earth-system and planetary perspective, including the oceans, atmosphere, cryosphere, ionosphere, magnetosphere, as well as solar–terrestrial interactions and analogous processes on the Moon, other planets, and their satellites. It is one of the oldest sciences, dating back to antiquity with the development of early seismometers and magnetic compasses, and later extending to Newtonian analyses of tides, precession, and Earth’s physical properties. Today, geophysics is pursued for fundamental scientific understanding and practical applications, including the exploration of mineral and energy resources, assessment and mitigation of natural hazards, groundwater and environmental studies, archaeological investigations, and environmental monitoring. Geophysics integrates theory, observation, and experiment to investigate Earth and planetary systems across diverse spatial and temporal scales. Its methods include field measurements, laboratory experiments, remote sensing, numerical modelling, and data analysis of both natural and instrumented records, including signal processing. As a unifying physical framework for Earth and planetary studies, geophysics connects phenomena from the deep interior to the upper atmosphere and near-space environment, providing the basis for understanding of planetary evolution, dynamics, and habitability.